Antwerp pleasances: a belt of country retreats beyond the city limits

The city of Antwerp was a very important centre in the Low Countries in the 16th century. As a result of the city's economic success and prosperity it attracted many people, among them artisans, artists, merchants and fortune-seekers from beyond the city limits. Inspired by examples of Italian villas and the influence of humanism, the villa rustica became all the rage for country living. Tenant farms were bought by wealthy Antwerp burghers and converted into a so-called hof van plaisantie (literally: pleasure court) where the owner could spend his free time or summer outside the city in the countryside. The demand for such pleasances grew quickly which lead to the development of residential areas with so-called speelhoven (literally: games courts). These speelhoven or leisure retreats were developed in two main areas within the freedom of the city: Leikwartier (Lee Quarter) and Papenmoer (Popes Moor). Outside of the city's freedom many pleasances were erected. Most stood just outside the city limits in rural villages such as het Kiel, Hoboken, Deurne, Wilrijk, Merksem, Borgerhout and Schoten. As a result the city became encircled by a belt of country seats, pleasances and summer houses. A similar development can be seen in other cities in the Duchy of Brabant like Bois-le-Duc ('s-Hertogenbosch), Mechlin, Louvain, Breda and Brussels, and around other cities like Ghent, Bruges, Goes, Middelburg, Rotterdam, The Hague, Harlem, Arnhem, Groningen, Utrecht, Amersfoort and Amsterdam. The southern examples are all earlier than the northern ones, with the exception of Utrecht.

With the economic success of the city, Antwerp became more and more crowded within the confines of its defensive walls and moats. So city dwellers escaped to the country as often as they could permit themselves. For the workers the main attractions of the countryside were inns with cheaper beer, games, gambling and other "naughtiness". The upper classes of burghers, merchants and noblemen fled the city for longer periods of time, often the whole of summer. This led to a system of hidden urbanisation as rich urbanites bought landholdings, tenant farms and even country seats or manors and improved them by adding a simple apartment with a playing room onto an existing farm or erecting fancy new structures on a moated site behind splendid gates.

The ideals of country living landed in fertile soil in Antwerp as there were no less than 8000 foreign merchants, bankers and traders. The Spanish (300), Italians (200) and Germans (150) made up the bulk of  the foreigners in the city. The rise of the urban economy also led to a shift in power. Traditionally the nobility, the clergy and the local elite stood at the centre of power. These groups, however, were no match for the new urban elite that arose in the Low Countries from the 13th century onwards. In later centuries the rural elite could only hold on to power by also becoming manifest in the city by building large townhouses, often with a defensive tower, and taking up key positions in urban governance. This cost money, so some of the rural assets had to be liquidated. The rising elite of wealthy merchants picked up these rural holdings as a foothold outside of the city to entertain, demonstrate their wealth and make money.

The classically inspired villa rustica involved high living in the countryside, but at the same time was focussed on the enlightening effects of nature. Especially those that bought a tenant farm or arable land kept their holdings as working farms often adding city oriented produce such as orchards and eggs. However pleasurable it was to be able to flee the city during the summer months or at leisure, property outside the city limits was mainly viewed as an investment. And a safe investment at that, with relatively modest returns, but a steady income nonetheless. The aim of the urban owner was to realise a coherent domain around their mansion, cottage or farm, always keen to enlarge their properties to increase production by buying up adjacent parcels or trading land with other owners to create continuous landholdings. The urban owners of the working farms and farmland were seldom interested in the production process and employed farmers to cultivate the land and rear the produce.

The typical development of a pleasance ran as follows. A member of the wealthy urban elite would acquire an existing farm or cottage from a member of the old elite like a convent or lesser nobleman. The person who took over the domain became the owner and the tenant farmer became a long leaseholder who operated from the farm buildings. The owner than built a playing room onto or into the farm building, sometimes a new farm was built and the old farmhouse was replaced by a summer residence. Especially former manorial moated sites were favoured for this. The norm for a country residence was a large house on a courtyard surrounded by a moat and secured by a gate (building) that was surrounded by a kitchen garden, orchard and pleasure garden. All these would be laid out in a orthogonal style in so-called perken (literarily: secluded space or fenced-off portion and to be equated to the French parc). If there was room pasture and even a small copse would be included in the total layout. These copses were also developed into a so-called sterrebos (a chase consisting of an often coppiced wood dissected by avenues of trees that join to make a star figure with 6 or 8 arms). The reworking of a property into a pleasance also included the erection of stables, orangery, housing for personnel and small cottages that could be rented out. Apart from the large pleasances (hoven van plaisantie) the smaller leisure retreats (speelhoven)  includes little more than a house and a yard often with only a small garden.

Of the pleasances and country retreats that once encircled Antwerp, few remain today. The ones shown in dark green are still in use as a private residence or have been converted into a public park after purchase by the local council. The house and outbuildings still stand. This is not necessarily the case for those ones shown in light green that also include examples that have been partially built over. The majority shown in red are no longer in existence and have been developed for housing, services like a hospital or industrial use. The area immediately adjacent to the city moat was barred from development as this was the field of fire so no pleasances were ever built here. In the polders north of the city no pleasances were established, these all cluster on the higher sandy soils.

Ivy, a late developer

One of the last plants to flower in October and November is Ivy. These clusters of blooms provide bees and other insects with a welcome meal of nectar and pollen just before hibernation. Most people only know Ivy in its juvenile phase as a climbing or sprawling plant with glossy hand-cut leaves. The globose umbels of green flowers are born in panicles on adult growth with entire leaves. Most species of Ivy flower once they reach the top of their vertical support, provided there is enough light. In nature the plant climb up trees to get closer to the light with their flowers to increase photosynthesis and reproductive success.

All species of Ivy (Hedera sp.) are difficult to distinguish from one another. This is especially true of flowering ivies. At first glance the panicels of Hedera helix 'Zorgvliet' (shown on the left) differ little from those of Hedera azorica SSF (on the right). The flowers of Hedera algeriensis (middle) are again similar, but have distinctly salmon coloured anthers. The size of each globose umbel is very different though, varying from 3 cm (Common Ivy) to 4,5 cm (Azorian Ivy) and even 6 cm (in Algerian Ivy).

Helensburgh, a Victorian spa town in Argyll and Bute

Before present-day Helensburgh existed the area was known as Millig and was owned by de MacAulay clan. They built a stronghold called Ardencaple on higher ground overlooking the Clyde estuary during the twelfth century. Recorded in 1351 as Airdendgappil the name is said to be derived from the Gaelic Ard na gCapull meaning "cape of the horses". The Lairds of Ardincaple saw their fortunes turned in the eighteenth century and were forced to sell of their land piece by piece. The Ardincaple Estate was purchased by John Campbell, 4th Duke of Argyll around 1764. He and his successor employed the famous architect Robert Adam to execute an extensive remodelling of the castle. After the death of the eighth duke in 1823 the Duchess dowager sold the entire estate to the Colquhouns of Luss in 1852.

Sir James Colquhoun had bought the estate to develop it from a rural area with a castle and a small fishing port (at the village of Rhu) into an industrious urban settlement. Part of his plan was the construction of a new town, which he named Helensburgh after his wife lady Helen Sutherland. This new town of Helensburgh was situated about 20 miles northwest of Glasgow on the northern shore of the deep Clyde estuary. Colquhoun first built a port believing his new industrial settlement would benefit from well organised port services. The result of his ferry service across the Firth of Clyde was that the residents of existing industrial towns near the Port of Glasgow such as Greenock took up residence on the more attractive northern shore and commuted to work by crossing the estuary. This success as a dormitory town was further increased by improvements in transport links. First there was the arrival of the railway to Glasgow in 1858. This was followed by the ocean steamer invented by Henry Bell that ferried day trippers and cargo along the estuary from Glasgow and back. In 1894 a railway extension was completed that passed to the north of the town and connected Glasgow with northern towns like Fort William and Oban via Helensburgh.

The new town of Helensburgh was laid out as a grid of streets behind a seaside promenade that followed the gentle curve of the shore. This promenade forms a T with the main route north towards Luss. Two winding streams were incorporated into the grid unaltered. In time parts of these streams was culverted, for instance Milligs Burn now flows underneath Helensburgh Central station in a brick tunnel. The grid plan was inspired by the plans for Edinburgh's New Town (built between 1765 and 1850), although the expansion of nearby Glasgow is also characterised by several grid systems. Only the central parcels around the station and Colquhoun Square have been fully developed with urban buildings, the rest of the grid parcels were filled with large and medium size houses in gardens. This in combination with the wide streets planted with trees gave Helensburgh the appearance of a "suburban colony".

This plan of Helensburgh before WW2 shows the grid that was in part altered to accommodate the small rivers Glenns Burn (g) and Milligs Burn (m). These grid adaptations created room for the Hermitage Park (H), the Eastend Public Park (E) and the cemetery (C). Within the grid a central public space was created as Colquhoun Square (S). In the west Ardencaple Castle (A) once stood. To the north Blachhill Plantation (B) was planted with the reservoirs (R) directly beyond along Milligs Burn. The town has no formal arrangement of public buildings and community services. Helensburgh Central Station (1) penetrates the grid from the east. The ferry terminal (2) lies beyond the grid, but close to the central square. The main church (3) of St Andrew's Kirk occupies one corner of this public space. Between the station and the main park Victoria Halls (4) stand: the Town Hall. Helensburgh Upper Station (5) is situated along the informal axis of the town (Colquhoun Street). Even further up the hill side, on the edge of the plantation, the Hill House (6) was erected. On the edges some alterations to the strict grid layout were made after 1900. This is most evident in a garden village type neighbourhood (G) that sits between Old Luss Road and the railway.

Within the new town provisions were made for parks and recreational spaces. A golf course was built to the north of the town. Blackhill Plantation was planted to separate the town from the windy heathland beyond. Ardencaple Castle was converted into a spa. Directly north of the railway station part of the grid was not executed to accommodate Hermitage Park on either side of Milligs Burn. Along this small river several reservoirs were created over time to provide the inhabitants with drinking water. After 1900 the town expanded within the confines of the new railway with typical houses along curved streets as was the norm in garden city style developments. It is in this period that Helensburgh most famous building Hill House by Rennie Macintosh was built. The older parts of the town are a typically Victorian mix of revival architecture styles with a strong emphasis on neo-classical stone buildings.

Helensburg in the 1930's shows an expanded grid with new features such as cul-de-sacs, curved streets and crescents. The town still sits between the dry valley of Woodend and the 1894 railway to Fort William. The main grid is shown in red. The central portion of the grid is made up of squares, the outer sections are both more rectangular. It is clear that the main axes of the grid are the Colquhoun Street and King Street. In the street names Sinclair street, the thoroughfare that runs parallel to the main axis, is the demarcation lane separating the "west streets" from the "east streets" (West King Street - East King Street). After 1950 the town would go beyond these limits and expand via a number of planned housing estates. This expansion of the town was mainly due to the nearby Faslane naval base.

Not so blue berries

Most fruit is not named for its colour. This is only deemed necessary when the fruit colour deviates from the norm -for instance the yellow kiwi fruit verses the normal green ones- or is rarely encountered. Hence the name blueberry for a type of berry where normally one might expect to only see berries in red or sometimes, yellow or black. As berry colour is related to seed dispersal, the colour of the fruit became linked to the main vector for dispersal. If this vector is a bird, as is mostly the case, the fruit will be red, orange or even at times yellow.

Three examples of similar berries on totally unrelated plants: Skimmia with the coral red berries (on the left), Pyracantha with yellow berries instead of the more widespread red ones, and Ilex (Holly) with deep red clusters of berries amongst the prickly leaves.

Onkel Toms Hütte, an example of expressive modernism

The first three building phases by the architects Bruno Taut, Otto Rudolf Salvisberg and Hugo Häring, are of a noticeable unity of design and together form the oldest part of the Onkel Toms Hütte Estate. This part has a layout akin to Unwinesque spatial design in the garden city tradition. The architecture, however, is not the vernacular design so often associated with garden city inspired suburban satellites, but an example of expressive modernism that was utilised by progressive continental architects in the 1920s and 30s.

The housing in the oldest phases of the suburban satellite is a mix of family houses in long and medium length terraces, semidetached properties and apartment blocks. The rows of family houses are placed along residential streets planted with trees. All have a front garden and a -larger- back garden. Every house has a flat roof!

In contrast the traditionalist design of the Fischtalgrundsiedlung places a strong emphasis on double pitched roofs. Here no ribbon-like windows are used, instead the windows are relatively small openings in the facade. The facade is broken up in the same way as in the modernist housing by colour-blocking.

A typical streetscape in the oldest part of Onkel Toms Hütte shows a garden city type arrangement of terraced housing oriented at the street lined with trees. In contrast to the usual species planted in garden villages such as fruit trees and small blossom trees, large forest species were introduced as a reference to the forest that once stood here. The use of bright colour in blocks breaks up the facade of the terraces.

The housing is of a typical unified modernist design, with a strong emphasis on standardisation and repetition. This is clear on the garden side of the terraces (on the left) where all houses are similar. Colour-blocking is mostly used on the facades visible from the street. Only in the detached self-built houses along the main street towards Zehlendorf the well known cubist style of white modernism is evident as the picture on the right shows.

Onkle Toms Hütte is well known for its expressive use of colour on the facades. This was something Taut used in many of his designs. It also lead to sneers from architects like Le Corbusier who considered themselves true modernist as they denounced colour all together. The combination of coloured facades and the tall pine trees that were kept in situ as a reminder of the Grunewald forest gives the area a distinct quality.

Taut uses white, off-white, yellow, green, red and blue. Often these blocks of colour are combined with brick or concrete details, like for instance the vertical courses on the right. This use of colour inspired post-modern architect to do similar things, but without the spatial quality of Taut's design thus resulting in rather gimmicky neighbourhoods. The so-called Regenboogbuurt (Rainbow Neighbourhood) in Almere is an example of this.

Other architects also used colour-blocking but in a more restrained manner. Her a design by Hugo Häring with ochre blocks of colour on the otherwise white facade with the red window frames and doors used as an extra ornamental element.

Especially on the corners Taut uses colour to emphasise and embellish these parts of the streetscape. In the oldest section of Onkel Toms Hütte this change in colour is linked to separate building masses -especially the semidetached houses on the corner of the long terraced. In the section north of Argentine Avenue the colours chance on the corners of buildings with the side elevation treated in a contrasting colour.

These flat-roofed blocks in natural hues are set amongst the trees. This type of suburban environment is a reference to the Waldsiedlung, a German type of housing project that was developed in per-existing woodland.

The apartment blocks have no use for front gardens an can therefore better emulate the Waldsiedlung type by having wide expanses of grass with pines and oaks. In the apartment blocks the building is treated as a sculpture for living in. Some have the Taut colours and brick details.

This long apartment building is part of the formal edge of the oldest part of Onkel Toms Hütte, separating this garden village inspired section from the railway tracks of the U--bahn. Here the many trees retained from the original forest and the newly planted birch trees break the long facades of the buildings.