The urban landscape: towards the fractured approach

When I was a student some of my fellow students declared city planning obsolete and urban design for dead; as they saw it there would only be interventions as market forces determined the future development of the city. Others were very vocal adepts of New Urbanism, especially after the Congress for the New Urbanism was started in 1993. In contrast my teachers at university were in the main functionalists, with some admiring and advocating the shapeliness of post-modern planning. I strongly feel that any spatial intervention or design should focus on the context and resolving the given problem(s) whilst at the same time creating an attractive environment. Many look down on such a practical approach, but I go about everyday practical planning unashamedly!

As the years have progressed since I graduated, I’ve seen the city around me change. Yes many of the developments are redevelopments of older neighbourhoods, former industrial sites, empty office blocks and former commercial sites (shops, market halls etcetera), but there have also been large-scale building projects developing fields. The era of large-scale developments (for housing and business) is almost at an end it seems. So the new development areas comprising of several new housing estates, arranged as neighbourhoods around a functional centre with a commercial estate on the side -known as Vinex in the Netherlands-, will be the last of their kind. Although… there is talk of expanding certain villages around fast growing urban areas, like The Hague, Amsterdam, Groningen, Tilburg, Breda and Eindhoven.

House building on a large scale on a unified plan was made possible in the Netherlands by the 1901 Housing Act, which sought to improve housing standards and provide affordable housing for the working classes. The first of these planned estates follow German examples of Sitte-esque urban design on artistic principles and English garden city examples, or they were built along rational and functional principles (the Low Countries were important in early modernism). Planned housing started rather small scale before WW1 and really took off after 1920 with a high point in the 1930. These neighbourhoods are well appreciated and were emulated after 1990 in a New Urbanism / Postmodern effort to create place.

Two examples of 1920 urban design. On the left the Sitte-esque neighbourhood of Sonsbeek-Noord in Arnhem which also resembles a garden village (the number of houses per acre is to high to be a true garden village). In contrast the New Objectivity approach by J.P. Oud in Mathenesse (right) makes the most of the triangular plot whilst still giving all residents a garden and a house with ample light and fresh air.

A phenomenon typical of the Netherlands is the way that housing was planned after 1945. Modernist thinking had taken over planning as the need for more housing could be more easily met via standardisation and repetition. Also Pillarisation (Verzuiling) meant that society was segregated along politico-denominational lines so planning had to allocate space for each group. This lead to the so-called Wijkgedachte (urban district approach) which centred around the decentralisation of the city. The urban district approach was first proposed in the book ‘De stad der toekomst, de toekomst der stad’ (The city of the future, the future of the city) by building engineers Bos and Van Tijen. The CIAM delegation in Rotterdam was also involved in the development and realisation of this urban design theory. Lotte Stam-Beese made this approach famous with her designs for Pendrecht and Hoogvliet in Rotterdam. Also in Rotterdam C.M. van der Stadt pioneered the Stempelstructuur (Stamp Structure), a repeated ensemble of housing similar to using a stamping block in printing wall paper.

Stamp Structure housing estates are everywhere in the Netherlands. Here an example from Eindhoven-Eckart. Several ensembles of row housing are repeated forming distinct neighbourhoods around the rational main infrastructure. The urban district centre with shops is located on the edge near the park along the Oude Gracht (Old Canal), a partially silted up arm of the Dommel river. A similar structure of repeated unit can be seen on the other side of the thoroughfare. The housing in the righthand corner is from the 1980s and consists of more expensive housing.

The theoretical foundations of the urban district approach was thoroughly modernist and revolved around functional and practical separation on various levels. The lives of people could be hierarchically classed around several social groups with different needs on different levels. The city could be divided into social units, based on an idea(l) of the integrated village, of about 20.000 people: the urban district unit. Each urban district would have a district centre with sports facilities, shops and a secondary school. Each urban district would be divided into neighbourhoods. This made it possible to allocate specific neighbourhoods to a specific social pillar. In this approach it is very important that the city is legible as a collection of spatial unit. These are also physically separated in the urban designs up to the 1980s when the anti-urban approach of Postmodernism starts to dominate, resulting in so-called Bloemkoolwijken (Cauliflower Estates) with little to no spatial definition. And they are therefore difficult to navigate. The organic design principles advocated in the 1980s were a reaction on the modernist estates that were seen as boring, bleak and not on a human scale.

The district approach in action in Veldhoven. The old villages (in yellow) of Zonderwijk (W), Veldhoven (V), Meerveldhoven (M) and Zeelst (Z) were expanded by building several urban districts in the fields (in orange). These are all physically separated by greenery and infrastructure. Each has its own district centre (in purple), with a new city centre (in red) built where the old villages meet the new developments.

In the 1980s financial difficulties force local government to surrender urban development to market forces and limit its involvement to legislative embedding, supervision and quality control. To secure developers don’t simply build the houses they can make the most profit from central government creates incentives to aid people to buy a house via a direct subsidy and also prescribes minimal numbers of social housing (to be realised by or for housing associations). The focus in public housing shifts towards home ownership and the privatisation of social housing is started. At the same time old neighbourhoods with social problems and often high crime rates are earmarked for redevelopment. This is done by replacing large amounts of social and affordable housing by more expensive middle class housing and even high-end apartments. Thus the socio-economic problem neighbourhood is resolved on paper, but the people are simply moved on to another area.

These redevelopments and even urban expansion in the 1980s and 90s is often piecemeal and in trances. A (re)development is portioned with distinct areas set aside for different developers. Each hires a different architect who is then instructed to create a distinct design (each developer want to be visibly different for marketing purposes). This creates an extremely fractured urban landscape of incidental design Sometimes large commercial developers force local government into developing an area as they own all the land in an area indicated on the development plan as earmarked for future development. Some even manage to influence political decisions on where to locate urban expansion based on their land positions. The city as a collection of architectural incidents is -unsuccessfully- combatted in planning by using themes, urban fields and geometric shapes and patterns.

The pinnacle of postmodern urban design must be Kattenbroek in Amersfoort. This large estate of mostly housing (4600 in total) and a small commercial estate was realised between the village of Hoogland and the motorway to Amsterdam. The design comprises of 5 elements translated into geometric shapes and architectural expression: The Ring, The Avenue of Mansions, The Hidden Zone, The Mask and The Creek. These 5 design elements are connected to 5 housing themes (The Closed City, The Fortress, The Farm Room, The Bridge House and The Winter Garden), as well as 5 landscape themes (Water, Pond, Wood, Field and Moor) and 5 urban morphologies (Avenue, Belt Road, Square, Alley and Street). The design is especially striking seen from above, but at street level shows itself to be little more than a collage of fashionable architecture in contrasting groupings.

For all the themes used and tightly controlled appearance of the housing built, the urban design is often little more than a narrative connecting the various separate components aimed at easy translation into legally binding land use maps. The fractured approach has now become the norm. The city of Eindhoven even presents itself with the motto ‘Scherven In het Groen’ (Shards in Greenery), although this is the result of the modernist planning doctrine with urban districts. The abandonment of planning with ensembles has lead to an urban landscape composed of fragments, that in the best cases have a great internal spatial working through the use of functional, spatial or architectural ensembles. On the larger scale the themed architecture cant hide the underlying lack of ideas. Many people consider these areas as non-places, as new housing estates could be anywhere and all look the same despite the great variation in often colourful architecture. As a reaction some planners and designers are revisiting designing with ensembles in an effort to consciously create an urban landscape that is legible for its residents and visitors alike.

The town of Leusden is a rather extreme example of a fractured urban entity comprised mostly of incidental urban interventions. This suburb of Amersfoort was never officially designated as such -as Amersfoort itself was seen as an overflow city for both Amsterdam and Utrecht. The result was a local authority being lead by private developers who saw opportunities for house building. The regular pattern of the polderland around the old village core (L) was incrementally developed; each new addition was given its own pattern, its own architectural expression and its own boundary within a framework of infrastructure.

Experimental dwellings: Housing Expo "De Fantasie" & "De Realiteit" Almere

The city of Almere is a New Town built in one of the reclaimed polders of the Zuiderzee as a new satellite for Amsterdam. This makes Almere the youngest city in the Netherlands, and also an example of a completely planned community (Hoofddorp, Nieuw-Vennep, Nagele, Emmeloord, Lelystad and Dronten are other examples). Almere was named for a former lake the Almere, that was roughly located where the new city was proposed. The city was conceived as a multinuclear suburban satellite composed of distinct sections surrounded by green (parks, playing fields, woodland etcetera). On land drained in 1968 (and known as the South Flevoland Polder) development of the first section Almere-Haven (Almere Harbour) started in 1976.This section was built as a self-sustaining village with its own little centre and amenities. In 1980 work started on Almere-Stad, the central section. Development progressed with Almere-Buiten (1984), Almere-Hout (1992) and Almere-Poort (2000). Plans are now being developed for Almere-Pampus.

The new high-density city centre of Almere as viewed from across the Weerwater lake. There are plans to move the power lines that now cut across the water.

As part of a rethink dubbed Almere 2.0 the idea is to make the city into a "true city" with a clear high-density centre. This will be developed along the northern edge of the Weerwater (a large artificial lake) and connected via a new "urban loop" around the lake's edge to a new, equally high-density mixed office and residential development near the motorway dubbed "the hub". The goal is to grow Almere to a city of 350,000 inhabitants by 2030. For this the local council is looking at increasing employment opportunities, as the city is basically a sleeper or commuter town.

Some of the towers of the new city centre and the way these new buildings are used to frame a view across the adjoining artificial lake.

Almere is known for its neighbourhoods of similar housing in a style typical of the building period. Owner-occupied and socially rented housing are mixed, as is usual in the Netherlands. As such most of the housing developed up to the 1990s is seen as bland and suffering from sameness and a lack of imagination. As land was cheap, it all belonged to the state as it was once the bottom off a bay,  Almere was seen as a good place for experimentation. So two experimental neighbourhoods De Fantasie (The Fantasy) and De Realiteit (The Reality) were developed. This sounds impressive but these experiment were at a diminutive scale compared to the normal housing production. A third architectural experiment called De Eenvoud (The Simplicity) is nearing completion.

Two of the winning entries of the first design competition "De Fantasie", are located next to the Weerwater. These temporary dwellings have been expanded to become proper houses.

In 1982 the design contest titled "Ongewoon Wonen" (= unusual housing) was declared by the Committee De Fantasie. The central theme was to design an experimental dwelling without foundations as a temporary structure. Building regulations were waved. For the selected submissions 10 plots near the Weerwater lake were set aside by the Rijksdienst IJsselmeerpolders (the municipality of Almere had not yet been established) for a period of 5 years. The idea was to take the dwellings down after this exhibition period. They remained however, and have even been extended in parts.

The entries that were built for "De Realiteit" are equally adventurous, often displaying a typical Postmodern signature. On the left a house built from reused materials. On the right the house on stilts to evoke the fact that soil level is below sea level called "Boven de zeespiegel" (Above sea level) by Wagenaar & Weysenfeld.

Due to the success of the first design competition, it was followed in 1985 by a second one with the motto "Tijdelijk Wonen" (= temporary housing). Each winning entry was given a 20 by 20 metres square plot along a street with a building subsidy of 10.000 guilders. Along a street dubbed De Realiteit 17 structures were erected. Like the houses on The Fantasy, the buildings on The Reality have not been torn down, although they were meant as a temporary showcase of experimental housing solutions. As such these examples are comparable to housing expo's of the interwar period, like the Weissenhofsiedlung and the Werkbund Siedlung.

Another example of Postmodernism from "de Realiteit" called "De naam van het huis" (the name of the house) by Hans Hammink.

Following on from these experiments, it was decided in 2006 that there should be a third instalment called "De Eenvoud". Another design competition was launched; again focussing on creative new ways of (re)using materials and realising -relatively- cheap and simple freestanding dwellings. New was a focus on energy neutral living. The houses are being built on 12 plots located on the edge of a housing estate aimed at self-builders called Noorderplassen - Noordwest (North Lakes - Northwest).

Brandevoort part 2, the suburban estates or "Buitens"

The suburban estates or "Buitens" of Brandevoort are themed urban fields separated from each other by green fingers. This makes each suburban estate a distinct spatial unit. In the themed approach of New Urbanism each estate has been given a theme that has been translated into distinct characteristics that have in turn been written down in a Quality Plan that all buildings and public space has to adhere to. Here a view across some fields along the Eindhoven Shipping Canal towards the "Stepekolk". 

The theme for "Stepekolk" is the rural vernacular. The old farmhouses along the narrow country lane of the same name are the reference for an architecture that is best characterised as eclectic vernacular. These whitewashed semidetached houses for instance refer clearly to garden villages of the 1920s and 1930s.

The layout of the streets is reminiscent of historic garden villages. The streets lack the green verges of the "garden village standard", but to be fair in a lot of Dutch examples they are also absent. Small street trees are a must however. The same goes for front gardens. The hedges have been prescribed in the Quality Plan. The same is true of the orange clay roofing tiles that are a feature of this suburban estate.

The detailing in the buildings also varies. It ranges from the truly rural vernacular -shown on the right- with mostly thatched roofs, sawtooth frieze in brick and wooden window shutters, to a garden village aesthetic -shown on the left- with small dormers on low roofs with rounded awnings. These awnings are known as "markies" in Dutch (that name translates as marquis and is derived from an sun sail over an officers tent).

In several places the garden village layout is used to evoke the desired rural feel. Here linked semidetached properties are placed around a large green. There has been some effort to emphasise the corners, but this isn't done with the classic Unwinesque treatment. Here some of the pre-existing trees have been saved and used in the public space.

From the edge of "Stepekolk" the neighbouring estate of "Brand" can be seen across the nature conservation area along the Schootense loop (the stream that ran here before the development of the housing). Again orange clay roof tiles have been prescribed for all roofs on this estate. The detailing, use of materials and colours differs as the theme for "Brand" is colonial housing.

In this estate all the roads have wide grassy verges planted with trees to evoke a New-Holland feel. The houses are spaced wider apart and are arranged in a more formal manner along the streets. The roofline follows the direction of the streets, except on corners were the buildings are often higher with a lunette vaulted roof (or roofs).

The colonial theme is prescribed for all architecture. All houses have a white picket fence along a green verge. The upper section of the building is clad in wood, painted white, above a lower section in brick. Verandas, porches and balconies in wood are added as a feature and ornament. The semidetached house (left) also has awnings on the first floor above the porch balcony. The building has an I-shaped floor plan. The detached dwelling on the right, has several balconies above porches, one of which has been extended to support a lunette vaulted roof.

In the estate "Brand" some of the old buildings of the hamlet of the same name have been incorporated. The name "brand" refers to a peat moor where peat was cut for fuel. This naturally wet area demanded extra measures for a sustainable drainage system after development. So here the verges have been excavated. These dry ditches are used to collect rainwater from the houses an pavements and store it temporarily so it can drain into the soil or run into the stream further along.

The Brandevoortse Dreef (= Brandevoort Drive) is a wide tree lined road that is sunk slightly below the surrounding area. This major road is part of the new ring road of Helmond. Along the banks on each side a free lying cycle path has been incorporated, as is the norm for such roads in the Netherlands. These cycle paths are usually red in colour (this isn't a legal requirement mind you!).Here this ring road separates the estates of "Brand" and "Schutsboom".

The Estate of "Schutsboom" is located east of the ring road and has also been themed. Here the Quality Plan prescribes buildings in the style of "those cosy days gone by" in effect garden village architecture from the 1920s and 1930s.The emphasis on variety can be clearly seen in the variation of roof shapes of these detached properties. All buildings share the brick facades (in natural earth tones or whitewashed) with roofs covered with grey clay tiles.

The little chapel of Saint Anthony, the patron saint for the recovery of lost items, holds a very old wooden statue. The chapel itself was rebuilt after WW2. The chapel was -and is- a pilgrim destination and stands on a large village green. In other places similar greens have been incorporated into the layout of the housing estate (see example on the right). This gives the whole a clear connection to garden city models as defined by Unwin, Muthesius and Feenstra.

The treatment of the streets is rather varied in this section of Brandevoort. More than in other estates pre-existing country lanes have been incorporated into the layout. The original buildings of the hamlet of Schutsboom have also been incorporated into the new housing estate. Here an example of a narrow one-way street with a two-way cycle path -in red- alongside a wide green verge planted with trees.

The architecture follow the Quality Plan very precisely. This is the result of strong quality control by the local council. The buildings in the estate of "Schutsboom" either have an 1930s aesthetic with brownish brick-built facades, white roof trims, dormers and robust (but short) chimneys; or reference the  whitewashed housing of garden villages or workers housing with high gable ends culminating in a chimney.

Some residential squares, resembling garden city closes, have been included in the plan for this estate. The narrow alleys with high -prescribed- hedges on either side evoke this 1930s garden village feel really well. The small green at the centre creates a nice focus for the rather loosely arranged buildings around it. The spatial distribution of the houses has been optimised for efficient land use not for Unwinesque spatial effects.   

The white housing is located in separate sections, so every neighbourhood within the estate has a distinct identity. These houses are rather similar in appearance. They all share the same floor plan but differ in the options chosen by the buyers. So some have dormers, others have roof lights. Some have awnings (again "markiezen"), wooden shutters or larger feature windows. The curve and the situation along an elongated green creates a sense of place.

Another example of a green, here used for playing. More in keeping with historic examples the buildings have been arranged in terraces or as linked semidetached houses. The latter type has been popular in the Netherlands since the 1930s. The houses feature the trademark high end gables, resembling spout gables, dormers and square bay windows on the ground floor. In places these neighbourhoods of Brandevoort come across as a pastiche of historic examples of garden villages, but overall the spatial and visual qualities are well above what is usually found in typical Vinex large-scale housing projects.