Utrecht: separating secular and religious entities

In Roman times Traiectum and its vicus wasn't an important settlement. This changed when the Franks erected a wooden church within the confines of the derelict roman fort around 650 AD. This first church was destroyed by a band of Frisians and subsequently rebuilt. Later -around 700 AD- a second church called Oudmunster (literally Old Minster) was build against the southern wall of the former Roman fort. In 732 the whole of this walled area is bestowed on Willibrord, a Northumbrian missionary saint, as the first bishop. Later large areas of land of the christianized Frisians in the Northern Netherlands were bestowed on the bishop of Utrecht, thus creating het Nedersticht and Oversticht -the two parts of what became the Prince-bishopric of Utrecht from 1024 AD. The two main churches -the church of St Martin (Maartenskerk) and the church of St Salvador (Salvatorkerk) plus a collegiate house and the bishops palace were located within the partially rebuilt Roman walls. On the westside a secular settlement developed called the Stathe (literally staith), located were once the vicus stood.

With the land grew the bishops wealth and with his elevation too archbishop so did his status. The central location was quickly exploited by the bishop and attracted many people. This in turn lead to the building of more churches. The first was the Buurkerk (built 925 AD) dedicated to the Virgin and located north of the Stathe. The churches of St John (Janskerk), St Peter (Pieterskerk), St Pauls church and abbey (Paulusabdij) and church of St Mary followed in 1030, 1039, 1054 and 1085 respectively, creating a cross with the cathedral church or Domkerk at its heart. These Churches were later followed by the churches of St Nicolas (Niklaaskerk - 1155), St Jacob (Jakobskerk - 1173) and St Gerard (Geertekerk - 1231).

The cross of churched reputedly built to commemorate Conrad II can be clearly seen at the centre of Utrecht. Later other churches were added. Two churches in this cross of churches (or Kerkenkruis) are no longer standing.

In order to expand the city that grew around the central religious core the natural landscape of the floodplain had to be extensively altered. These alterations were executed from west to east and included the damming of rivers, the cutting of drainage channels, dredging rivers and digging canals. Each time a new area came available parts of it were quickly filled in. In some parts however urban development had to incorporate older monastic compounds. When the settlement received its city rights  the large Monastery of St Catherine of the Knights Hospitaller of St John (Johanitter Orde) had already been built outside of the Stathe. The new city defences were constructed first on this side to incorporate (most of) the monastic compound. In the 16th century the monks were moved to the site of the Carmelite convent to make way for a large castle. These Carmelite nuns were moved to a new site on the other side of the Nieuwe Gracht (the new canal -1262).

These compounds belonging to monasteries and convents were always encircled by a wall, as within them only church law applied. This system of monastic freedoms (kloostervrijheden or vrijthoven) was widespread throughout the Low Countries, Germany, France and Denmark. The often large compounds greatly influenced the way in which the city developed as secular and religious entities were separated.

The monastic compounds within the city once took up about a third of the space within the city walls. These included the compound of the bishop (1) and the Collegiate Church (1A), Sint Pieter Vrijheid (2) and Paulusabdij (3).The compound of the Buurkerk (4) was small compared to that of the Janskerk (5), which had room to split off a part to accommodate the Friars Minor (6). A similar situation occurred at the Nikolaaskerk (7) where a monastery (7A) was added in 1337, followed by the convent of St Agnes (8 - Agnietenklooster) in 1420 and the new Carmelite convent (9) in 1529 and at the St Servatius Abbey (10) founded in 1222 where later parts were developed to house the Mary Magdalene convent (11) of 1351, Jerusalem House (12) of 1394 and Willibrord House (13) of 1510. The older compounds are located near the old Catherijneconvent (14) of the Knights Hospitaller: 15 - St Clare's convent and St Elisabeth Hospital (1500) on an older part of the former, 16 - Mariakerkvrijthof, 17 - Duitse Huis of the Teutonic Knights (1231) and 18 - the Geertkerkhof with the Bartholomew Hospital (18A) from 1377. Later monastic compounds are located near the cathedral: 19 - Ursula convent (1412), 20 - Regulierenklooster (1267), 21 - the first Karmelietenklooster (1468), Bridget, Monastery Jeruzalem cellenbroeders 25 Geronimo 24, Further afield we find 26 - Convent of Bethlehem (1425), 27 - Wittevrouwenklooster (1240), 28 - Begijnhof (1251), 29 - Dominican (Preachers) Monastery or Predikherenklooster (1232), 30 - Cecilia convent (1396), 31 - Jakobskerk and 32 - Vreedendaal Monastery 1399. Within the city, on parts of older private houses we find almshouses often consisting of single-room dwellings (cameren): 33 - Croontjenspoorthof (1397), 34 -Janskameren (15th C), 35 - Sionskameren (15th C), 36 - Myropscameren (1583), 37 - Kameren van Goch (1560), 38 - Kameren van Campen (1574), 39 - Margaretenhof (1562), 40 - Gronsveltkameren (1652), 41 -Beyerskameren (1597), 42 - Bruntskameren (1621), 43 - Zuylenskameren (16th C), 44 - Kameren Maria van Pallaes (1651) and 45 - Breyerskameren (1749).  

This all changed after the Iconoclastic Wave (Beeldenstorm) of 1566 when Catholicism was made illegal and all "papist property" was seized by the state. The monastic building were reused as schools, orphanages, whorehouses, warehouses, abattoir, stables, military barracks and such. Most however were dismantled creating space for large scale infill and improvements like for instance road widening and new quays. Only the hospitals and almshouses were spared often under the care of "freed nuns". The former enclosed monastic compounds are still recognisable by the street names and reused buildings and building fragments -like for instance gates and cloisters- that were incorporated in later secular buildings.

Utrecht: reworking the floodplain

The Roman fort of Traiectum on the Rhine was abandoned in the third century. As a result of rising sea levels and increased flooding most of the area along the large rivers was abandoned, habitation only remained in isolated pockets. Around 650 the Franks build a church within the walls of the former Roman fortress that was quickly destroyed by the Frisians. In 732 the fortress of Uut-Trecht -uut meaning below signifying its position further downstream from that other historic Traiectum ad Mosam now Maastricht- is bestowed on Willibrord the new Archbishop by Charles Martel. This is the real beginning of the present city. After Dorestad fell in 850, Utrecht quickly became the most important city in the northern Netherlands until Amsterdam took this position from 1630 onwards. The settlement received city rights in 1122 and was strategically located near a ford just before the point where the Kromme Rijn (Crooked Rhine) forks into the rivers Vecht and Oude Rijn. This makes Utrecht a true water city as it is situated in the floodplain of the lower Rhine-basin.

The Roman fort of Traiectum nestled in a tight bend of the river Rhine around the year 250.

As a result of silting up the river landscape changed and the main branch of the Rhine became so shallow as to make transport by boat impossible. This prompted the people to dig a new cut from the Vecht to the Old Rhine. This gravening was excavated in 723 in an older Rhine branch. Around 1000 AD the Rhine became very shallow and part of it was dredged between the former Roman fort and the Vecht at Ondiep (Ondiep literally means shallow). Also around the same time a drainage channel was excavated in the peat and clay. This Liesbossche Wetering made it possible to farm the land and also provided the Rhine at Utrecht with more water to prevent further silting up.

Of great importance for the changing drainage situation of the floodplain would be the foundation of the Oostbroek Monastery east of Utrecht on a natural elevation in the peat bog in 1113. The monks dug a 7 km long drainage channel from their monastery tot the Vecht. This Wetering was completed around 1122 and also connected to the Crooked Rhine via the Bisschopswetering (Bishops Drain) that was excavated around 1113 in an old river branch. In the process a new straight cut was created bypassing to old river bends in the Vecht. More or less parallel to this river a second drainage channel the Lisveld was excavated to drain the Lage Weide (literally: Low Meadow). Silting lead to flooding which resulted in the damming of the Kromme Rijn in 1122 near the former Dorestad. This meant that the water levels could be managed much better. With the city rights bestowed on Utrecht in the same year, work started on building city defences. These consisted of earth banks with ditches on each side. On the western side a broad moat was dug to better regulate the flow of water in the Rhine (as a secondary river branch away from the city centre). Also work was started to excavate a new shipping channel to the IJssel near IJsselstein called the Vaartse Rijn (best translated as the Rhine Navigation). For this the Liesbossche Wetering was widened and extended.

Utrecht around 1125 shows a different image of the floodplain.THe Kromme Rijn (KR) bifurcates forming the rivers Vecht (V) and Oude Rijn (OR) near the city of Utrecht; the gravening (1) now being the main flow channel. Other man-made drainage channels include: the Liesbossche Wetering (2), the Oostbroeker Wetering (3), the Voordorper Togt (4), the Bisshopswetering (5) and the Lisveld (6).

The development of a city directly adjacent to its land holdings prompted the Monastery of Oostbroek to start cultivating the peat land more intensively by excavating more discharge  channels, that all run more or less parallel northwards. To improve shipping connections the Nijevecht was dredged and excavated at the end of the twelfth century. Around the same time the Vleutensche Wetering was dug to bypass a shallow, narrow and winding part of the Old Rhine. In the city itself a new canal - Oude Gracht - was dug between the former Roman fort (now the seat of the Bishop) and the Crooked Rhine in 1127, followed in 1165 by the northern part that includes the continuation of the Oude Gracht, the Weerdsingel and the first section of Nijevecht.

Utrecht around 1200 shows the expansion of new shipping links such as the Vleutense Wetering (1), Vaartse Rijn (2) and Nijevecht (3). In the city  the broad moat of the(Stadsbuitensingel (4) connected these new shipping channels and the Oude gracht was excavated in two section, one in the south (5) and one in the north (6). The monks developed new drainage channels suchs as: the Gageltogt (7), the Anthoniestogt (8), Veldtocht (9) and Bureveldse Togt (10).

To improve the transport of peat from the lands of the Oostbroek Monastery the Zwarte Water was dug shortly after 1200, a canal that is named after the black colour of the water. At the same time the narrow stream running through a former river branch is widened and dredged as the Grift. In order to make the area east of the Oude Gracht suitable for urban development the former river bend around the centre is dredged and a new section is excavated in Oudelle around 1260. Around the same time the northern city moat (Weerdgracht) is completed. Twenty years later the Nieuwe Gracht (New Canal) was dug connecting the Kromme Nieuwe Gracht (the old river bend) to the Crooked Rhine. In 1290 a paved road is built as the Steenwech op de Bilt.

The Crooked Rhine keeps silting up further as a result of the dam near Wijk bij Duurstede. This is in part remedied by excavating the southern city moat edging the former flow channel (completed before 1850). The whole city moat is completed before 1380. Later a new cut is necessary. This channel is completed in 1384. The old Rhine Branch is dammed and is hence known as the Minstroom. This stream also gets a direct connection to the Nieuwe Gracht to improve water flow. In 1350 the suburb of Weerd is incorporated into the city walls as Bemuurde Weerd. In 1385 the Alendorper Wetering is dug as a cut linking the Vleutense Wetering with the Old Rhine at Harmelen thus avoiding the narrow winding river and improving accessibly for ships. In 1395 The Nieuwe Gracht is improved and the Plompetorengracht and Drift canals are excavated to improve drainage and make the area better suitable for development.The same year the Lange Vliet and Heycop -both drainage channels- are completed. These are followed by the Bijleveld in 1413 and the Ridderschapsvaart shortly after.

Utrecht around 1425 showing clearly the ongoing cultivation and drainage. The shipping cuts of Zwarte Water (1), Alendorper Wetering (2) and New Rhine (8) keep the city accessible by boat. The drainage situation is improved by digging: the Grift (3), Nieuw Gracht (4), moat (5), Ooststroom (6) and Weststroom (7), Drift and Plompetorengracht (9), Lange Vliet (10), Heycop (11), Bijleveld (12) and Ridderschapsvaart (13).

During the 16th century the fortifications are modernised. In 1544 the new bastions on the westside are completed, followed in 1577 by new bastions on the eastside. The accessibility for ships also needed to be improved. This lead to the excavation of the Leidse Vaart in 1531 with a second section completed by 1545. In the east the new Biltse Vaart was dug around 1633 to improve accessibility from this side. In 1636 the Pall Mall (Maliebaan) was constructed just outside the bastion Lepelenburg. In 1655 the last piece of the shipping channel now known as Leidse Rijn was excavated from Oog in Al to the Harbour near the Catherine Gate (Catarijnenpoort). In 1670 three parallel canals were dug to provide room for expansion of the city. This however never materialised, as by then Amsterdam had taken over the leading position in the northern Netherlands. As a result the Bleyersgraft, Herengraft, Blomgraft, Mariensgraft and Geertegraft were known as Moesgrachten (named after the moestuinen or vegetable gardens that were made here).

Utrecht around 1675 marked the end point of the reworking of the floodplain. The new canal known as Leidse Rijn (Leyden Rhine) comprises of three consecutive section (1), (2) and (6). Another canal is the Biltse Vaart (5). The fortifications are improved, first on the westside (3) and later on the eastside (4). Improvements in the drainage situation are executed east of the city in the shape of the Zilveren Schaats (7) and the cut at the country estate of Amelisweerd (8). Due to the diminished amount of water flowing through the dammed Rhine the river has started to wind within its old stream bed.

Dazzling Daffodils

The name daffodil is derived from the Dutch name for the Asphodel, the death lily of Greek legend, by contraction of the article. Thus "de affodel" became "daffodil". The scientific name Narcissus relates to one of the flower-heroes of Greek mythology Narkissos, much like other flower names relate to similar figures like Hyakinthos and Adonis. This doesn't mean that the flower that now bears his name sprang up after his death (this is true of all of them), as asphodels and anemones are the more likely candidates for this.

The genus Narcissus is placed within the Amaryllis-family and consists of bulbous perennials that grow in meadows and woods in Europe, North Africa and West Asia. The species are mainly yellow and white with quite some variation in the size and colour of the trumpet or cup. In most species the tepals and the corona are more or less the same colour, where these differ the flower is all the more striking for it.

Unlike many people I really like yellow flowers, which makes me a fan of daffodils as well as they provide yellow so well! This ranges from the large yellow trumpets of Narcissus 'Dutch Master' (left) via the dazzling combination of orange and yellow in 'Jetfire' through to the greener tones of the curiously shaped double flowers of 'Rip van Winkle'.

Utrecht: The river fort of Traiectum

The foundation date of the city of Utrecht is usually equated to the erection of a Roman castellum called Traiectum (Latin for ford or crossing) as part of the Limes Germanicus around the year 50. This square fortress was located on a sideway of the main Roman Road from Lugdunum Batavorum (Katwijk) to Colonia Ulpia Traiana (Xanten) and can still be located around the Dom Square right in the heart of the city of Utrecht. It is located between the Oude Gracht (Old Canal) and Kromme Nieuwe Gracht (Crooked New Canal). The fortress was erected to defend the border of Germania Inferior against invading Frisian and German Tribes from the north. A string of such forts ran along the Rhine river from the coast to the foothills.

In red the castellum Traiectum on the map of the historic city of Utrecht. In Yellow the old routes, these are not the Roman road this ran further south from west to east.

The fortress was destroyed several times by invaders and also the location on a low sand dune by the Rhine meant that floods were a constant assault on its stability. The first fortress was constructed with earth banks later topped with a palisade. Later fortresses were constructed from wood with an embankment around it. The last of the castellae was built in stone and bricks. The fortress also boasted a little harbour: the river itself being the most reliable means of transport in the marshy terrain.

Looking at the current location within Utrecht the castellum doesn't seem to be located on a major river. This position might seem puzzling but one needs to take into account that the landscape looked very different in Roman times. If we superimpose the old flow channels of the Rhine (Rhenus in Latin) the image changes completely. Now the castellum of Traiectum is located in a sharp bend of the river just before it forks and gives way to the Vecht (Fectius in Latin). The fort itself is located on a low land dune and probably had a moat on the land side thus being secure on all sides. In Roman times this branch of the Rhine river with little slope was already silting up as a result of the rise in sea level. Also a dam to lead more water into the Waal river near Nijmegen (Noviomagus) decreased the flow in the Rhine. This in turn lead to a dramatic rise in groundwater levels and the already marshy area become difficult to navigate and go across as the rivers were turning into narrow streams unfit for large vessels. Traiectum was finally abandoned around 270 AD. It seems though that people remained to live here.

The location makes more sense with the old river Rhine projected on the map (in deep blue), showing the fort Traiectum (T) on a low sand dune surrounded by water. These dunes (in amber) forced the water to take several twists and turns and also provided a higher living space for local people in a vicus (v) on either side of the fort. In light blue an even older branch of the Rhine that had mostly silted up by Roman times. This shows how changeable this landscape was.