The Binnenhof, the House of Parliament in The Hague

The Government of the Netherlands does not reside in the capital Amsterdam, but in the Binnenhof in The Hague. This Binnenhof (literally Inner Court) is a complex of buildings around the centrally placed Ridderzaal (Knights Hall) with a courtyard on either side. Originally this was the residence of the Counts of Holland and it became the political centre of the Dutch Republic in 1584 as the place where the States General met. The origins of the complex lies in a hunting lodge built in the wooded dunes near a small lake on a small creek. The Dutch name of The Hague 's-Gravenhage also expresses this as haag means closed woodland used for hunting, with the prefix des graven meaning belonging to the count. In 1248 a palace was built replacing the lodge and the natural lake was remodelled into a formal pond (for storing fish) and is known since then as Hofvijver.

The Binnenhof complex is the oldest House of parliament in the world still in use. It houses both houses of the current States General of the Netherlands as well as the office of the Prime Minister and the Ministry of General Affairs that is headed by the PM. The whole was once surrounded by a moat and only accessible via drawbridges. This was changed in the nineteenth century so now the complex is accessible via one of the gates on either end (Het Plein and Buitenhof). Most of the complex dates back to the 17th century and before.

A view across the Hofvijver of the Binnenhof. On this side lie the chamber of the Senate, The ministry of General Affairs and the Trêveszaal. In the background the high towers of the ministerial and the business districts around the Central Station can be seen.

The great hall at the heart of the Binnenhof was originally built as a ballroom. This gothic structure (ca. 1250)  is now the venue where the King delivers his Speech from the Throne every third Tuesday of September. The Inner Gate (Binnenpoort) connects the two courtyards of the Binnenhof and was built in 1634.The Mauritshuis (Prince Maurice House) stands next to the Binnenhof and was built in 1636-41 for Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen, the governor of Dutch Brazil,  by Jacob van Kampen and Pieter Post. It is now a museum.

Brandenburg on the Havel, expansion by going across the river

The city of Brandenburg is an old city on the banks of the Havel that lent its name to the medieval Bishopric of Brandenburg, the Margraviate of Brandenburg and the present-day German State of Brandenburg. Although of great historical significance for north-eastern Germany, the city has been eclipsed in importance by the neighbouring cities of Postdam and off course Berlin.

The first historic mentions of a settlement in this riverside location date back to 948 (as Brendanburg) and 967 (as Brennaburg). The old place name doesn't refer to the Irish Saint Brendan, but is most likely of Germanic origin combining the words branda (fuel or firewood) and burg (secure place, later fort or castle). An alternative explanation links the prefix to the Germanic word brendh meaning well or rising water. Both are equally possible as both tie in with the original landscape of a wooded river valley. The Slavic tribe Stodorani had a stronghold (a ring fort) on an island in the Havel, that was conquered by Henry the Fowler (König Heinrich der Erste) in 929. In 948 (or possibly not until 965) the Bishopric of Brandenburg was founded here. After the recapture of the fortress by Slavic forces in 983, the Bishop went into exile in Magdeburg for the next 170 years whilst Brandenburg was ruled by the Prince of the Hevelli. These princes ruled from the fortress with the Chapel of Saint Peter (Petrikapelle) on what is now the Dominsel (Cathedral Island). After the death of the last Slavic prince Pribislav in 1150 the land fell to Margrave Albert I (Albrecht der Bär). The land of Brandenburg was raised to a Margraviate (Mark Brandenburg) in 1157. By that time a service settlement had come into existence further west called Parduin. Before 1147 White Canons had settled near the Church of St Godehard in this trade settlement north of the river. The moved to the fortress in 1165 where they founded an abbey at the same time the decision was made to erect a cathedral (Dom in German). In 1170 the trade settlement was granted city status by Margrave Otto I. The smaller trade settlement of Luckenberg (named after a hill now called Marienberg) around the Church of St Nicolas wasn't granted these privileges and dwindled to a small village in de the decades that followed. The city of Brandenburg however grew quickly.

A tentative reconstruction of the earliest Brandenburg (B), consisting of a ring fort (in green) with two small villages on the northern river bank of the Havel Parduin (P) and Leckenberg (L) along an old trade route. As Parduin served as a service quarter for the burgh it had a place of worship (dedicated to St. Godehard - G) and a market square (M). Where later the Neustadt would be built only a large farmstead (Bauhof - H) stood.

In 1196 the city was enlarged, not by adding a wider encircling wall and city moat, but by the foundation of a completely new city on the other side of the river directly south of the old fortress. The Court of the Margraves was transferred to a location in the south of this new city. This new city (literally called Brandenburg Neustadt)  was granted separate city rights and had a large market square at its centre next to the Church of St. Catherine. The three component parts Cathedral Island, Old City and New City were seen as separate entities. Together this Greater Brandenburg was an important trade centre. In 1314 and 1315 respectively the Old and New City joined the Hanseatic League. In 1431 The double city became part of the city alliance with Cöln, Berlin (together a twin city on either side of the Spree), Salzwedel and Frankfurt on the Oder. Thus rectifying an older alliance of 1307 within the new reality after 1412 when viscount Fredrick of Nuremberg became the first ruler of Brandenburg in the House of Hohenzollern. In 1598 the city lost its status as the seat of the Elector (the margrave of Brandenburg was one of the four worldly members of the collage of seven within the Holy Roman Empire) was moved to Berlin. The two cities were united in 1715. The cathedral island was added only in 1928. The twin city was never expanded until the age of industrialisation at the end of the 19th century.

With the growth of the twin city the fortifications of the old Burgh became obsolete, and a dam (D) was made through the low-lying floodplain of the Havel to connect the Dominsel to the Neustadt. A bridge still connects the Neustadt and Altstadt. Each city had a market; (Ma) Altstädtische Markt and (Mn) Neustädtische Markt each with a town hall. Both cities had their own fortifications consisting of a moat and wall with gates: Plauer Tor (1), Rathenower Tor (2), Altstädtischer Mühlentor (3), Wassertor (4), Neutor (5), Neue Tor (6), Neustädtischer Mühlentor (7), Neustädtischer Wassertor (8), Annator (9), Steintor (10) and Grabentor (11, a small passage towards the river). On the City Canal, that secures the new city on the south side, a watermill (W) was built. Further south outside the city walls the Hospital (H) stood along the main road to Magdeburg. The oldest place of worship is the Petrikapelle (C1) on the former burgh. Other churches are: Sanct Gotthardkirche (C2), Sanct Nicolauskirche (C3), Sanct Johannis (C4), Domkirche Sanct Peter und Paul (C5), Sanct Katherinenkirche (C6), Heilge Dreifaltigkeitkapelle (C7) and Sanct Paulikloster (C8). This last monastery used to be the Margravial residence. The residence of the Bishop (B) was located in the Old City near the bridge.

A special feature of cities in Brandenburg and Pomerania are so-called Kietze. These were service settlements near a castle, fortified town or river crossing that sprang up all over north-eastern Germany during the middle ages. Historically a Kietz was settled by Slavic people who were serfs of the local ruler. They appear for the first time in the Mark Brandenburg during the 14th century. No charters relating to their foundation are known. They should be compared to regular suburbs, but with a distinct ethnic population. The city of Brandenburg boasted no less than 4 such Kietze: Altstädtischen Kietz (K1), Neustädtischen Kietz (K4), Großen Domkietz (K2)  and Kleinen Domkietz (K3). All are located directly against the former ring fort or on a river crossing.

Lierre, joining church and commerce

The city of Lierre (Lier in Dutch) is known as the Gate of the Campine and is one of the best-preserved historic water cities of the Low Countries. The earliest history of the city is shrouded in mystery and many fanciful tales, that have subsequently been presented as factual, have been written down about this. What is known is that there was a presence around the area in Roman times. Little of this survives and is all located away from the present city. The earliest mention of Lierre is in 870 as Ledi, a cognate of Leet that signifies a man-made watercourse or an improved natural stream. The much quoted connection with Allier (as Ald-Lier) near Emblem further upstream along the Kleine Nete (Lesser Nethe) being the original settlement should be dismissed! Allier is more likely derived from aa-liedere, again a reference to a man-made watercourse (liede), this time near a natural stream (aa). If Allier was ever to be located opposite Lier, than both settlement have been moved, as present-day Alliers is about a mile (1.6 km) further upstream from Lierre. The core of the story with two donken on either side of the Nethe, each with their own settlement is however congruent with the natural landscape.

This tentative reconstruction of pre-urban Lierre shows clearly the floodplain of the Nete river at the point where the two branches meet with some local elevations of stable sandy soil (so-called donken). The oldest route crosses a ford on the Kleine Nete befor it joins the Grote Nete. The Chapel built by the Saint Gummarus stand on the edge of higher land (Nivesdonk) surrounded by rivulets. On the other side several routes converge on a donk (Oudendonk). This is where the trade settlement would develop. Further south stood a hunting lodge.

The Franconian nobleman Gummarus who lived at Emblem retreated to a pious life after his marriage failed and became a hermit at Nivesdonk, a sandy elevation in the floodplain of the Nethe rivers. He established a place of worship here where he was also buried after his death around 714. On his grave a small chapel was erected. This chapel gradually became a place of pilgrimage after Gummarus had been sanctified in 754. As a result the chapel was enlarged and a service district with lodgings and relics sprang up around it. This meant that the ford linking the Oudendonk with the Nivesdonk became more important. On the high bank of the Nethe a small trade settlement grew as the river was navigable by small vessels. These two separate settlements would grow rapidly during the 11th and 12th centuries. A new shorter connection with a wooden bridge will also have been built during this period. It has been suggested that the mention of Lierre as oppidum in 1194 must have meant that some form of defensive structure had been created around the trade settlement. A moat with a paling is very possible as most of the market square occupies the Oudendonk, but no evidence of this has been found. Shortly after, in 1212, the Duke of Brabant elevates Lierre to city. The city limits were pegged out in 1213 and included the so-called Kuip (literally: barrel) the low-lying floodplain and the Bijvang (catchment) that included the villages of Kessel, Nijlen, Emblem, Hagenbroek, Lachenen, Mijl and Bevel.

It is around this time that a canal is dug linking the Kleine and Grote Nete (Greater Nethe) north of the twin city thus better dividing the flow of water and decreasing the risk of flooding. In 1244 work starts n formal city defences consisting of a moat, walls and gates. Around the commercial settlement on the Oudendonk the existing arm of the Kleine Nete is dammed and a new outer moat is dug in a wide arc around the marketplace used as an outer moat. This moat is called Vest. The old main branch of the Kleine Nete is later known as Brouwersvliet (Brewers Fleet - Bv). The northern rivulet of the Grote Nete is known as Vredebergvliet (Vv). Around the clerical settlement a similar Vest is dug. This moat simply joins on to the existing man branch of the Grote Nete. This stream is also dammed and a new canal Minnevliet (Mv) is dug to redirect water to the Brouwersvliet. The rivulet of Sint Pietersvliet (Pv) joins onto this Minnevliet. With this a Wharf is created along the bank of the Nete. The works are completed around 1317 when a fortified bridge is built replacing the old ford. This St Jansbrug linkes the city wall on each side of the river. The twin city has become a single entity. In 1388 a water mill is built on the dammed branch of the Grote Nete, that is henceforth known as Kerkhofmolenloop (Kl).

 

The city of Lierre  before 1400 with its two centres encircled by a defensive moat and wall. The religious centre has at its heart the Chapel of St. Peter (C1) and the Church of St Gummarus (C2). On the other side we find the large Market Square with the Cloth Hall (L-Lakenhal). Nearby stands the Chapel of St. Jacob with almshouses. The two centres were connected with the Bridge of St. John (1) and the High Bridge (2). The religious centre on Nivesdock was expanded with the addition of the Hospital of Our Dear Lady (3), Table of the Holy Ghost (4), St Anthony Almshouse (5) and the Court Beguinage (6) with the Chapel of St. Margaret (C4). The Lisper Windmill (7) that belonged to the Convent of Nazareth on the Kleine Nete at Lisp, stood outside the first city, as did the Hermitage Chapel (C5). The city had 5 gates: Eikelpoort (8), Mechelse Poort (9), Antwerpse Poort (10), Lisperpoort (11) and Berlaarpoort (12). A water mill (13) stood near the cemetery on the Old Nete.

During the course of the 14th century the city of Lierre expanded rapidly due to the cloth making industry and trade. As a result a cloth hall (1367) with a fortified belfry (1369) was built on the central market square. This building doubled up as city hall. In the 1370s the city gates are completed. Behind the cloth hall the trade settlement founded its own chapel with almshouse in 1383. This coincided with the acquisition of the Strypensveld (Stripes Field) east of the city by the council. Here streets are laid out and a housing quarter is built. This quarter with the existing Bril Quarter is the counterpart of the Quay Quarter (Kaaiwijk) and Brewers Quarter on the other side of the river. In front of the 5 gates (of which only 1 gives access to the religious centre on the east bank) suburbs develop.

To pre-empt future development it is decided to expand the city even further. In 1389 a new, wider, urban envelope is approved. Work starts with the acquisition of land and the strengthening of the embankments of the Nete within the old city by erecting river walls at the wharf and quay. Also work started on 7 new gates. A new moat was dug encircling the old city on both sides. At regular intervals bulwarks were built along the outer moat known as Stadsvesten. The old moat was renamed according to the functions nearby; for instance Gasthuisvest after the Gasthuis (hospital) or Kolveniersvest (named after the Culverin Guild that had a shooting range nearby). Within this new city moat walls were raised. To improve the drainage situation and better control water levels within the city a new canal was dug called the Binnennete (n). To improve water management even further, a large flushing sluice (Groot Spuihuis 1508) was built where this canal joined the moat. A second flushing sluice (Klein Spuihuis 1518) was built where the old Nete joined the moat, thus ensuring a better water level for the fulling mill (built 1421) on the old Vest.  The city florished and attracted many religious institutions, merchants and artisans. The demise of the cloth trade and the religious turmoil that followed in the 15th and 16th centuries halted the development of Lierre, so that large areas remained rural. The city had a short resurgence under the patronage of Isabella of Austria around 1610. New religious institutions were founded, the markets were enlarged and breweries sprang up around the city that became famous for its caves beer. This development was situated within or directly adjacent to the old city so most of the land within the city walls was used for market gardening, raising pigs and poultry and orchards.  It wasn't until the 1900s that a plan was made to develop the Sionsbeemden (SB), Gasthuisbeemden (GB, Molse Beemden (MB) and the Kartuizerveld (KV).

The urban area was more than tripled in the 15th century. The infrastructure for trade was expanded with the Meat Hall (Vleeshuis-V) a Wharf (W) and Keys (K). The number of institutions expanded: Convent Black Sisters (1), Cellites Monastery (2), Monastery of Sion (3), St Barbara Almshouse (4), Orphanage (5), Monastery of the Dominican Preachers (6), Jesuit Monastery (7), Carthusian Monastery (8), Vredeberg Convent (9), Theresian Monastery (10), Almshouses of St Joachim and St Anna (11) and Ursulin Convent (12). Later the St Elisabeth Hospital (13) was added. The enlarged city had several gates: Begijnepoort (14), Mechelse Buitenpoort (15), Antwerpse Buitenpoort (16), Boschpoort or Lisper Buitenpoort (17), Waterpoort (18), Groot Spuihuis (19), Klein Spuihuis (20), Leuvensepoort (21) and Molsepoort (22). A second water mill was built on the Nete  for fulling wool (23). A third (double) water mill for pressing oil and sawing planks (24) was built off the Molsepoort  on the city moat. Finally a second wind mill was added at Pettendonk (25).

Escher in the Palace

The former 17th-century palace on the Lange Voorhout in The Hague houses the Escher Museum. Designers and mathematicians alike are known to admire Maurits Cornelis Escher, a Dutch graphical artist, for his prints and woodcuts; and I am no exception. So when I had to be in The Hague, I seized the opportunity to visit the museum. M.C. Escher (Mauk to friends) was born in Leeuwarden and grew up in Arnhem. At school he excelled at drawing, but showed little academic aptitude. After he had taken up carpentry he started a studie in architecture, but quickly switched to decorative arts. He was taught by the Samuel de Mesquita. After his first travels in northern Italy and Spain he became greatly influenced by the natural landscape with its sharp contrasts and the geometric Islamic designs he found for instance in the tiles of the Alhambra. He eventually settled in Italy with his family to end up back in the Netherlands after short stays in Switzerland and Belgium. Most of Escher's best known works are from his Dutch period. He died in 1972 aged 73.

In his early works Escher drew from nature, with a special interest in insects, landscapes and leaves. In 1922 he produces 8 portraits (one shown on the left) with the faces divided in several textural planes. In the 1930s he produces many landscapes, streetscapes (in the middle) and still lives, often from extreme vantage points to dramatise the perspective or including visual tricks. The mathematical influence in his work is evident from 1936 onwards, when he starts producing his morphs (an example with moths is shown on the right).

Escher tries to improve on the Moorish grid repetitions to achieve so-called tessellations of one or two separate shapes. The Pegasus on the left is an example as the white winged horsed fit exactly with the red ones that have the same shape. He also worked on spherical tessellations, as the example with bats in the middle shows. In the 1950's he comes into contact with mathematicians who recognize his work as a way of explaining mathematical theory. He then starts producing impossible shapes  of which the everlasting loop (Möbius Strip) -shown on the right with ants- is a good example.